MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
DATA
The term data refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of
variables. Data (plural of "datum") are typically the results of measurements and
can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are
often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then
knowledge are derived. Raw data refers to a collection of numbers, characters,
images or other outputs from devices that collect information to convert physical
quantities into symbols that are unprocessed.
Data is a plural of datum, which is originally a Latin noun meaning “something
given.” Today, data is used in English both as a plural noun meaning “facts or
pieces of information” ( These data are described more fully elsewhere ) and as
a singular mass noun meaning “information”: Not much data is available on flood
control in Brazil. It is almost always treated as a plural in scientific and academic
writing. In other types of writing it is either singular or plural. The singular datum
meaning “a piece of information” is now rare in all types of writing. In surveying
and civil engineering, where datum has specialized senses, the plural form is
datums.
The terms information and knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts.
The main difference is in the level of abstraction being considered. Data is the
lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally, knowledge is
the highest level among all three. Data on its own carries no meaning. In order
for data to become information, it must be interpreted and take on a meaning. For
example, the height of Mt. Everest is generally considered as "data", a book on Mt.
Everest geological characteristics may be considered as "information", and a report
containing practical information on the best way to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be
considered as "knowledge".
Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage
to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely
related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction,
knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.
Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to distinguish between data and
information; data are symbols while information occurs when symbols are used to
refer to something.
It is people and computers who collect data and impose patterns on it. These
patterns are seen as information which can be used to enhance knowledge. These
patterns can be interpreted as truth, and are authorized as aesthetic and ethical
criteria. Events that leave behind perceivable physical or virtual remains can be
traced back through data. Marks are no longer considered data once the link
between the mark and observation is broken.
Raw data refers to a collection of numbers, characters, images or other outputs
from devices to convert physical quantities into symbols, that are unprocessed.
Such data is typically further processed by a human or input into a computer,
stored and processed there, or transmitted (output) to another human or computer
(possibly through a data cable). Raw data is a relative term; data processing
commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may be
considered the "raw data" of the next.
Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they
represent data. An analog computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance,
position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents a datum as
a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital
computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically
denoted "0" and "1". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are
then constructed from the binary alphabet.
Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection
of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a
distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but
in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially
indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a
description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for metadata is "ancillary data."
The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description
of the contents of books.
Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a scientific
investigation by observation and recording. Field data refers to raw data collected in
an uncontrolled in situ environment.
INFORMATION
Information, in its most restricted technical sense, is an ordered sequence of
symbols. As a concept, however, information has many meanings. Moreover, the
concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication,
control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern,
perception, and representation
In general, raw data that (1) has been verified to be accurate and timely, (2) is
specific and organized for a purpose, (3) is presented within a context that gives
it meaning and relevance, and which (4) leads to increase in understanding and
decrease in uncertainty. The value of information lies solely in its ability to affect
a behavior, decision, or outcome. A piece of information is considered valueless
if, after receiving it, things remain unchanged. For the technical meaning of
information see information theory.
INTELLIGENCE
Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch
of computer science which aims to create it, through "the study and design of
intelligent agents" or "rational agents", where an intelligent agent is a system
that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances
of success.[62] Achievements in artificial intelligence include constrained and
well-defined problems such as games, crossword-solving and optical character
recognition. General intelligence or strong AI has not yet been achieved and is a
long-term goal of AI research.
Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning,
knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception, and the ability to move
and manipulate objects.
For "active intelligence" and its collection, see Intelligence (information gathering)
and Espionage. For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation).
"Intellect" redirects here. For other uses, see Intellect (disambiguation).
"Human intelligence" redirects here. For human intelligence (HUMINT) in military
and espionage contexts, see HUMINT.
Intelligence is an umbrella term describing a property of the mind including
related abilities, such as the capacities for abstract thought, understanding,
communication, reasoning, learning, learning from past experiences, planning, and
problem solving.
Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but is also observed in animals and
plants. Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines or the simulation of
intelligence in machines.
Numerous definitions of and hypotheses about intelligence have been proposed
since before the twentieth century, with no consensus yet reached by scholars.
Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human intelligence
have been adopted, with the psychometric approach being especially familiar to
the general public. Influenced by his cousin Charles Darwin, Francis Galton was
the first scientist to propose a theory of general intelligence; that intelligence is a
true, biologically-based mental faculty that can be studied by measuring a person's
reaction times to cognitive tasks. Galton's research in measuring the head sizes of
British scientists and laymen led to the conclusion that head-size is unrelated to a
person's intelligence.
Alfred Binet, and the French school of intelligence, believed intelligence was an
aggregate of dissimilar abilities, not a unitary entity with specific, identifiable
properties.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(IT) is "the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial,
textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of
computing and telecommunications". The term in its modern sense first appeared in
a 1958 article published in
IT spans wide variety of areas that include but are not limited to things such as
processes, computer software, computer hardware, programming languages, and
data constructs. In short, anything that renders data, information or perceived
knowledge in any visual format whatsoever, via any multimedia distribution
mechanism, is considered part of the domain space known as Information
Technology (IT).
IT professionals perform a variety of functions (IT Disciplines/Competencies) that
range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and
information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may
include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database
and software design, as well as management and administration of entire systems.
Information technology is starting to spread farther than the conventional personal
computer and network technology, and more into integrations of other technologies
such as the use of cell phones, televisions, automobiles, and more, which is
increasing the demand for such jobs.
In the recent past, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and the
Association for Computing Machinery have collaborated to form accreditation and
curriculum standards for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of
study as compared to Computer Science and Information Systems today. SIGITE
is the ACM working group for defining these standards. The Worldwide IT services
revenue totaled $763 billion in 2009.[6]
the Harvard Business Review, in which authors Leavitt and Whisler commented
that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call
it information technology."
INFORMATION SYSTEM
An information system (IS) - or application landscape - is any combination
of information technology and people's activities using that technology to support
operations, management, and decision-making. In a very broad sense, the term
information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people,
algorithmic processes, data and technology. In this sense, the term is used to refer
not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) an organization
uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of
business processes.
Some make a clear distinction between information systems,and computer systems
ICT, and business processes. Information systems are distinct from information
technology in that an information system is typically seen as having an ICT
component. Information systems are also different from business processes.
Information systems help to control the performance of business processes.
Alter argues for an information system as a special type of work system. A
work system is a system in which humans and/or machines perform work
using resources (including ICT) to produce specific products and/or services for
customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted
to processing (capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and
displaying) information.
Part of the difficulty in defining the term information system is due to vagueness
in the definition of related terms such as system and information. Beynon-Davies
argues for a clearer terminology based in systemics and semiotics. He defines an
information system as an example of a system concerned with the manipulation of
signs. An information system is a type of socio-technical system. An information
system is a mediating construct between actions and technology.
As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and
activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication
system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An
information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports
human decision making and action.
Information systems are the primary focus of study for the information systems
discipline and for organisational informatics.
SYSTEM ANALYST – ROLE
A system administrator, systems administrator, or sysadmin, is a person
employed to maintain and operate a computer system and/or network. System
administrators may be members of an information technology (IT) or Electronics
and Communication Engineering department.
The duties of a system administrator are wide-ranging, and vary widely from
one organization to another. Sysadmins are usually charged with installing,
supporting, and maintaining servers or other computer systems, and planning for
and responding to service outages and other problems. Other duties may include
scripting or light programming, project management for systems-related projects,
supervising or training computer operators, and being the consultant for computer
problems beyond the knowledge of technical support staff. To perform his or her
job well, a system administrator must demonstrate a blend of technical skills and
responsibility.
A system administrator's responsibilities might include:
• Analyzing system logs and identifying potential issues with computer
systems.
• Introducing and integrating new technologies into existing data center
environments.
• Performing routine audits of systems and software.
• Performing backups.
• Applying operating system updates, patches, and configuration changes.
• Installing and configuring new hardware and software.
• Adding, removing, or updating user account information, resetting
passwords, etc.
• Answering technical queries.
• Responsibility for security.
• Responsibility for documenting the configuration of the system.
• Troubleshooting any reported problems.
• System performance tuning.
• Ensuring that the network infrastructure is up and running.
In larger organizations, some tasks listed above may be divided among different
system administrators or members of different organizational groups. For example,
a dedicated individual(s) may apply all system upgrades, a Quality Assurance (QA)
team may perform testing and validation, and one or more technical writers may be
responsible for all technical documentation written for a company.
In smaller organizations, the system administrator can also perform any number of
duties elsewhere associated with other fields:
• Technical support
• Database administrator (DBA)
• Network administrator/analyst/specialist
• Application analyst
• Security administrator
• Programmer
System administrators, in larger organizations, tend not to be system architects,
system engineers, or system designers. However, like many roles in this field,
demarcations between systems administration and other technical roles often
are not well defined in smaller organizations. Even in larger organizations, senior
systems administrators often have skills in these other areas as a result of their
working experience.
In smaller organizations, IT/computing specialties are less often discerned in
detail, and the term system administrator is used in a rather generic way — they
are the people who know how the computer systems work and can respond when
something fails.
The system analyst is the person (or persons) who guides through the development
of an information system. In performing these tasks the analyst must always match
the information system objectives with the goals of the organization.
Role of System Analyst differs from organization to organization. Most common
responsibilities of System Analyst are following
1) System analysis
It includes system's study in order to get facts about business activity. It is about
getting information and determining requirements. Here the responsibility includes
only requirement determination, not the design of the system.
2) System analysis and design:
Here apart from the analysis work, Analyst is also responsible for the designing of
the new system/application.
3) Systems analysis, design, and programming:
Here Analyst is also required to perform as a programmer, where he actually writes
the code to implement the design of the proposed application.
Due to the various responsibilities that a system analyst requires to handle, he has
to be multifaceted person with varied skills required at various stages of the life
cycle. In addition to the technical know-how of the information system development
a system analyst should also have the following knowledge.
• Business knowledge: As the analyst might have to develop any kind of
a business system, he should be familiar with the general functioning of all
kind of businesses.
• Interpersonal skills: Such skills are required at various stages of
development process for interacting with the users and extracting the
requirements out of them
• Problem solving skills: A system analyst should have enough problem
solving skills for defining the alternate solutions to the system and also for
the problems occurring at the various stages of the development process.
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